A grammar of the Koyek language

Introduction

Koyek (also Köyek, from Adāta "koia aik", our tongue) is a dead language of the Edastean language family, belonging to the Rathedān sub-family, which was probably spoken between 350 and 620 years after the death of Zārakātias, in the northern regions of Zophīs. The language is only clearly attested from +570 to +620, in a large collection of manuscripts (including a prescriptive grammar, the Mjenêljêzje, etymologically "way of words", but probably just meant "grammar"), which were found in +810 in a deserted monastry, lost in a remote place in the mountains, several weeks away from Zophīs.

There is a contreversy as whether those who wrote these manuscripts were the last remaining speakers of Koyek or native speakers of another language using Koyek only as a liturgical language, already dead and fossilised by that time. The Mjenêljêzje includes extensive lists of common "errors", but it is not known if these errors reflect changes in the language or influence of a foreign language.

Koyek shares many features with archaic forms of the Kozado language, to the point that it was originally thought that Koyek was Old Kozado. But a deeper analysis revealed that Koyek lacked several features it would have been expected to already possess at the time it was attested if it had been the direct ancestor of Kozado (notably the [j] > [ʒ] change, cf Adāta aik our,giving Kozado osk but Koyek ek) and likewise had several innovations of which there is no trace at all in Kozado (notably the loss of the aspiration contrast in occlusives).

Old Kozado and Koyek were more probably dialects of the same language, with a great number of shared features and common innovations, but also distinctive differences.

Common features between Koyek and (Old) Kozado:
-Unaffected by the great Rathedān lenition (the change [pʰ tʰ kʰ b d g] > [ɸ θ x β ð ɣ] which affected all other Rathedan branches - though not all to the same degree, in some branches the change was more conditional than in others) - though Kozado did later experiment some lenition as a side effect of palatalisation.
-Labialisation of final [l].
-Loss of final [r], with compensatory lengthening.
-[w] > [v].
-Palatalisation of consonants before front vowels (ultimatly lost in modern Kozado).
-Monophtonguisation of -w diphthongs (with rounding and raising as a consequence).
-[x] > [h].
-Loss of final unstressed short vowels.
-Insertion of a glide -j between vowels and palatalised consonants.
-Monophtonguisation of -j diphthongs (with fronting and raising as a consequence).
-Development of a system of articles, based on the proximal demonstrative and the number "one".
-Loss of nominal morphology (nouns do not inflect even for number).
-Absence of distinction between pronominal and non-pronominal possession (the same word is used for "his/her/its" and "of").
-Absence of cliticised possissive adjectives (present as a common innovation in all other Rathedan branches).
-Reanalysis of the mood system to form a system combining moods with two tenses, non-future and future.
-Development of an auxiliary verb system.
-Loss of negative inflections except on auxiliary verbs (preserved only on the preverbal particles in modern Kozado).
-Suppletive formations in the verb "to be", using forms borrowed to the verb "to become".
-Development of preverbal particles for relative clauses and questions.

Specific features of Koyek:
-Absence of the [j] > [ʒ] change.
-Preservation of Adāta [h].
-Absence of the [s] > [h] change.
-Preservation of final [s], [n] and [x].
-Insertion of high short vowels to break consonant clusters (still productive in late stages of the language).
-Palatal shift: palatalised voiceless unaspirated consonants become voiced, then aspirated occlusives become unaspirated.
-Lowering of unstressed high vowel in close syllables (in Kozado, only before word final [n]).
-Regularisation of stress (always on the first syllable).
-Lengthening of short vowels on stress.
-Reduction and centralisation of remaining short vowels.
-Development of allomorphy in the articles, quantifiers and demonstratives.
-Preservation of the 3 Adāta cases in the pronominal system.
-Preservation of the habitual aspect.
-Lesser tendency to analogy and regularisation in the verbal system (Koyek and Kozado follow approximatly the same model, but Koyek verbs have more different conjugational categories and more irregularities).
-Preservation of a full passive voice.
-Development of infinitive and serial verb forms.
-Expansion of the auxiliary verbs system.

Sound correspondences between Koyek and Kozado:

Koyek Kozado
p ph, p
b b
pj ph
bj p, b
t th, t
d d
tj þ
dj þ, ð
k kh, k
g g
kj š
gj š, ž
m m
mj m
n n
nj ñ
v v
vj v
s h
z z
zj s, z
h h, v, Ø
l l
lj ll
r r
rj r
y z, š, ž, i
a a, o
e a, e, o, i
ö a, e, i, y, o, u
i a, e, i
ü e, i, y
o o, u, y
u y
â o
ê a, o
î a, e, y
û o, y

 

Phonology

 

Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop -Palatal p b t d k g
+Palatal pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ kʲ gʲ
Nasal -Palatal m n
+Palatal
Fricative -Palatal v s z h
+Palatal
Approximant -Palatal l r
+Palatal j

Palatalised consonants are written with a following j.
The palatal approximant is written y.
Other consonants are written as in IPA.

Thorough the grammar, palatalised consonants will be refered as "soft consonants", and non-palatalised one as "hard consonants".

 

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close iː yː ɨ ʊ uː
Close-Mid eː øː ə
Open ɐ aː

The long vowels are written a e ö i ü o u.
The short vowels are written â ê î û.

 

Syllabic structure and phonemic distributions

Koyek syllabic structure is similar to Adāta's, (C)V(C) with consonant clusters prohibited :
-Any consonant can appear word initially, except v, or vj.
-Any consonant can appear word finally, except y.

Hard and soft consonants contrast word-finally and before e, ê, ö, ü and î, otherwise they are in complementary distribution, always hard before a, â, o, u, û and always soft before i. The only exception is y, which is always in free distribution.

Hard voiceless occlusives and soft voiced occlusives are more common than the two other series.

Word finally, all vowel are contrastive. Elsewhere, a, â, o, u and û cannot appear before a soft consonant, except y. Other vowels are in free distrution, but ö and ü are much more common before soft consonants than before hard ones.

Short vowels appear only in unstressed syllables.

 

Allophony

Since Koyek is a dead language, which remains only in the form of a corpus of texts, not much is now about the allophonic rules of the language.

 

Stress

Stress always falls word initially.

 

Morphology

Nominal morphology

Koyek nouns do not inflect.

 

Article

Koyek has a definite and an indefinite article. They are never stressed.

They serve mostly to introduce nouns and precise their number, as soon as the context is ovious, they are often left out.

The definite article is zje, pluralising to zak.
zje becomes zj' if the next word starts with a vowel, and zji if it starts with a soft consonant. zak becomes zek if the next word start with a soft consonant, and zegj if it starts with i or e.

The indefinite article is gjê. It doesn't have a plural form, when it is needed to show that an indefinite noun is in the plural, nêmj ("some") is used.
gjê becomes gj' if the next word start with a vowel, and gjî if it starts with a soft consonant.

 

Quantifiers

They are never stressed:
- few, pj' if the next word starts with i or e, p' if it starts with another vowel, if it starts with a soft consonant.
nêmj - some
ûp - many, îpj if the next word starts with i or e. îp if it starts with a soft consonant.
mjî - none/no, mj' if the next word starts with a vowel, mji if it starts with a soft consonant.
êzj - all/each

 

Demonstratives

Allways stressed:
ha - this, pl. hak
ha becomes he if the next word starts with a soft consonant.
hak becomes hek if the next words starts with a soft consonant, and hegj if it starts with i or e.

zji - that, pl. zjik
zjik becomes zjigj if the next words starts with i or e.

These various contractions can be summerised in the following table:

Next word starts with i- or e- another vowel a soft consonant a hard consonant
the (sg) zj' zj' zji zje
the (pl) zegj zak zek zak
a/one gj' gj' gjî gjê
few pj' p'
some nêmj nêmj nêmj nêmj
many îpj ûp îp ûp
none/no mj' mj' mji mjî
all/each êzj êzj êzj êzj
this ha ha he ha
these hegj hak hek hak
that zji zji zji zji
those zjigj zjik zjik zjik

 

Adjective

Adjectives do not decline.

A derivative suffix -ûn (-vûn after a vowel) allows to change a noun into an adjective:
Kahâd (Kāxad) > kahâdûn (from/of Kāxad)
bölje (soil) > böljevûn (dirty)

But for many words, irregular formations exist allong side regular ones:
zjim (mud) > zjimavûn or zjimûn (muddy)
bapo (strength) > bapûrûn or bapovûn (strong)

All adjectives can be used as nouns (generally meaning "the one which is...").

 

Personnal pronouns.

Direct Oblique Possessive
1SG i in e
2SG do don ad
3SG a an ah
1PL ik ik ek
2PL lakûk lako alah
3PL ak ak aka

 

Correlative Pronouns

Query This That Some No Every
Adjective iz ha zji nêmj mjî êzj
Person/thing gjez hegj zjü nepj megj igj
Place izîtûs hal zjil nal mal el
Time sol zjeh zjis napo maso eso
Way ip zjip nemjep izjep
Reason adûz zjit nap mat

 

Prepositions and conjunctions

Koyek prepositions invariably govern the oblique case. They are not stressed
û - or, nor, without
êtj - and
ât - in, into, inside, among
erjêt - as far as, up to, until
hah - out of, from
il - along, via, during
- as, like
ûb - near to, by
pjên - with

 

Numerals

Cardinal Ordinal x10 10 + X
1 gje lügjê gjer -ögj
2 ya luyâ yar
3 zo luzo zor -ozo
4 bu lubû bur -ob
5 do ludo dor -odo
6 es lüzês er -êljês
7 man lumân mar -omân
8 hud lud hudâr -ûlûd
9 njü lünjî njir -önj
10 gjer lurû ipj

Examples: gjeromân (17), yarozo (23), hudârodo (85), yarögj (21), dorö (52), erêljês (66).

 

Verbal morphology

 

Valency, Number and Aspect.

Verbs are marked for three aspects (habitual, imperfective, perfective), two numbers (singular and plural) and two voices (active and passive).

There are five main patterns of conjugation, labelled after the infinitives of the verbs.

Frequent irregular alterations of the stem occure in the habitual singular forms, they will highlighted in red in the following examples.

Infinitive in -il, example verb ebjizjil to sing

Active Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Habitual ebjîzjî ebjizjîtj ebjîzji ebjizjitj
Perfective ebjizjên ebjizjîbj ebjizjen ebjizjibj
Imperfective ebjizjîzj ebjizjê ebjizjizj ebjizje

Infinitive in -öl, example verb dupöl to smell

Active Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Habitual dopê dupêtj dopö dupötj
Perfective dupûn dupêbj dupon dupöbj
Imperfective dupêzj dupû dupözj dupo

Infinitive in -ül, example verb papül to fear

Active Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Habitual papî papîtj papü papütj
Perfective papûn papîbj papun papübj
Imperfective papîzj papû papüzj papu

Infinitive in hard consonant + -el, example verb zjimel to live

Active Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Habitual zjemê zjimêtj zjeme zjimetj
Perfective zjimân zjimêbj zjiman zjimebj
Imperfective zjimêzj zjimâ zjimezj zjima

Infinitive in soft consonant + -el, example verb emjel to fly

Active Passive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Habitual emjê emjîtj emje emjitj
Perfective emjên emjîbj emjen emjibj
Imperfective emjîzj emjî emjizj emji

 

Tense and mood

Koyek verbs know 4 moods (indicative, imperative, conditional and subjonctive) and 2 tenses (non-future and future), which combine freely together to form 8 combinations, marked with prefixes. There are two set of prefixes, I and II, and it is generally not possible to know which one will be used. Prefixes also have different forms whether the verb begins with a consonant or a vowel.

I II
Consonant Vowel Consonant Vowel
Non-future Indicative - - - -
Imperative i- y- i- y-
Conditional pu- paz- pü- pezj-
Subjonctive irâ- ir- irê- irj-
future Indicative so- s- sö- zj-
Imperative za- z- ze- zj-
Conditional u- uk- ü- ügj-
Subjonctive bo- b- bö- bj-

These prefixes often cause irregular stem alterations:
ebjîzjî > pazêbjîzjî
zjemê > püzjêmê
dopê > pudûpê

 

The verbal noun

The verbal noun is formed with the suffix -êyên, replacing the valency/number/aspect suffix. However, many verbs generally have several possible verbal nouns, one regular and one or several irregular. Examples :
ebjizjil > ebjizjêyên
dupöl > dupêyên or düpjêyên
papül > papêyên or pepjêyên
zjimel > zjimêyên or zjimjêyên
emjel > emjêyên

A contracted form of this suffix, -ên, is used when several verbal noun are stacked in a phrase, and for serial verbs as well.

 

Auxiliary verbs

Koyek has several verbs which, in addition to their original meaning, can be used as auxialy verbs to form compound constructions. Out of their often irregular conjugations, these verbs are notable for having negative forms as well.

Etjel to be

Active Passive
Affirmative Negative
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Non-future Indicative Habitual etj edj metj medj atâ atêtj
Perfective a bje an ebj atân atêbj
Imperfective zji etje ezj metje atêzj ata
Imperative Habitual i yedj mji ayêdj mjisâ mjisêtj
Perfective ya ibj e mjibj mjisân mjisêbj
Imperfective izj is mjizj mjis mjisêzj mjisa
Conditional Habitual po pütj apo apütj aputâ aputêtj
Perfective pun pübj apun apübj aputân aputêbj
Imperfective püzj pus apüzj apus aputêzj aputa
Subjonctive Habitual irâ irêtj mjirâ mjirêtj mjirâtâ mjirâtêtj
Perfective irân irêbj mjirân mjirêbj mjirâtân mjirâtêbj
Imperfective irêzj ira mjirêzj mjira mjirâtêzj mjirâta
future Indicative Habitual sötj asê asêtj asûtâ asûtêtj
Perfective son söbj asûn asêbj asûtân asûtêbj
Imperfective sözj so asêzj aso asûtêzj asûta
Imperative Habitual ze zetj azê azêtj azâtâ azâtêtj
Perfective zan zebj azân azêbj azâtân azâtêbj
Imperfective zezj za azêzj aza azâtêzj azâta
Conditional Habitual ukâ ütj mukâ mütj mutâ mutêtj
Perfective ukân übj mukân mübj mutân mutêbj
Imperfective üzj us müzj mus mutêzj muta
Subjonctive Habitual bötj abö abötj abotâ abotêtj
Perfective bon böbj abon aböbj abotân abotêbj
Imperfective bözj bo abözj abo abotêzj abota

The verbal noun is etjêyên.

As an auxiliary, etjel adds no particular meaning, and thus is only used when negation is needed. The negative passive forms are used only when the verb is being used as an auxiliary.

 

Tazel to do

Active Passive
Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Non-future Indicative Habitual to tazêtj ato atâzêtj taz tazetj atâz atâzetj
Perfective tazân tazêbj atâzân atâzêbj tazan tazebj atâzan atâzebj
Imperfective tazêzj tazâ atâzêzj atâzâ tazezj taza atâzezj atâza
Imperative Habitual ito itâzêtj mjito mjitâzêtj itâz itâzetj mjitâz mjitâzetj
Perfective itâzân itâzêbj mjitâzân mjitâzêbj itâzan itâzebj mjitâzan mjitâzebj
Imperfective itâzêzj itâzâ mjitâzêzj mjitâzâ itâzezj itâza mjitâzezj mjitâza
Conditional Habitual puto putâzêtj aputo aputâzêtj putâz putâzetj aputâz aputâzetj
Perfective putâzân putâzêbj aputâzân aputâzêbj putâzan putâzebj aputâzan aputâzebj
Imperfective putâzêzj putâzâ aputâzêzj aputâzâ putâzezj putâza aputâzezj aputâza

The rest of the conjugation is predictible, for negative forms m- is added if the verb form (including the mood/tense suffix) starts with a vowel (mj- for non-future imperative and subjonctive moods), a- if it starts with a consonant.

The verbal noun is tezjêyên.

As an auxiliary, tazel adds a dynamic or inchoative meaning to the verb. This new meaning is often idiomatic and not predictible, and will be listed as a specific entry under "tazel" in the lexicon.

 

Berjil to have

Active Passive
Affirmative Negative Affirmative Negative
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Non-future Indicative Habitual berjî berjîtj abêrjî abêrjîtj berji berjitj abêrji abêrjitj
Perfective berjên berjîbj abêrjên abêrjîbj berjen berjibj abêrjen abêrjibj
Imperfective berjîzj berjê abêrjîzj abêrjê berjizj berje abêrjizj abêrje
Imperative Habitual ibêrjî ibêrjîtj mjibêrjî mjibêrjîtj ibêrji ibêrjitj mjibêrji mjibêrjitj
Perfective ibêrjên ibêrjîbj mjibêrjên mjibêrjîbj ibêrjen ibêrjibj mjibêrjen mjibêrjibj
Imperfective ibêrjîzj ibêrjê mjibêrjîzj mjibêrjê ibêrjizj ibêrje mjibêrjizj mjibêrje
Conditional Habitual pubêrjî pubêrjîtj apubêrjî apubêrjîtj pubêrji pubêrjitj apubêrji apubêrjitj
Perfective pubêrjên pubêrjîbj apubêrjên apubêrjîbj pubêrjen pubêrjibj apubêrjen apubêrjibj
Imperfective pubêrjîzj pubêrjê apubêrjîzj apubêrjê pubêrjizj pubêrje apubêrjizj apubêrje

The rest of the conjugation is predictible.

The verbal noun is berjêyên (sometimes, the reducted form berjên is used as if it was the full form).

As an auxiliary, berjil is used to form a past tense (and thus is not used in combination with the future tense prefixes).