Introduction - Sound changes - Phonology - Nominal morphology - Verbal Morphology - Syntax - Sample text - Lexicon - Appendix
ɑˈgɑf language
Syntax
ɑˈgɑf is a right branching, head first language.
Glosses follow this pattern :
The sentence as it is spoken.
Morphemic breakdown, whith removal of Sandhi and Umlaut rules.
Morphemic gloss.
Litteral translation (if relevant).
Translation.
Non canonical abreviations :
PRV - preverb
OPT - optative
VB - verbal noun
ES - comparative/essive
Nominal phrase
Basic order : [noun] [article/demonstrative] [number] [correlative adjective] [adjective].
There is no case concordance, only the noun takes case affixes.
The articles purpose is primary to mark number. They are used with parcimony.
The articles are not used when the number and identity is obvious, notably with names, and also titles refering to a name.
Repetition tend to be avoid, and an article is often dropped if it has already been used earlier refering to the same noun.
If a noun is modified by a number, it is not incorrect to use the singular form of the article (even if the noun is plural), or to drop it entirely.
The indifinite article is generaly used to introduce a noun new to the conversation, while the definite article is used for old information (the definite article, also serving the purpose of demonstrative, is less frequently dropped).
If a noun being introduced refer not to a real, existent thing, but to an hypothetical one, to the idea of that thing, the indefinite article will also tend to be dropped.
Example :
gɛˈgæʊ ˈødø øˈdɔfɔhø døˈgæɪs
g-ɛˈgæʊ ˈødø øɰ-ˈɔfɔ-øɴ do-gæɪs
ERG-man a PRV-come-3SG.PRF DAT-here
A man came here.
gɛˈgæʊ øɰˈdɔfɔhø døˈgæɪs
g-ɛˈgæʊ øɰ-d-ˈɔfɔ-øɴ do-gæɪs
ERG-man PRV-SBJV-come-3SG.PRF DAT-here
A man (any man) could have come here.
Coordination
When two or more nouns are coordinated with conjunctions, only the first noun takes case affixes. Coordinations do not count as distinct elements form the phrase they precede.
døpʰøˈdɑm ˈɑsø fæʊl
døpʰø-dɑm ˈɑsø fæʊl
ABL-sun and moon
From the sun and the moon.
Possessive constuctions
They follow the structure [possessed] [possessor].
The possessed must be in the possessive case (surprise !) while the possessor must be in the genitive case.
ˈlɑdɑxø øgøˈxæxæd
lɑs-ɑxø øg-ˈkæxæd
land-POSS.3SG GEN-Kaxad
The land of Kaxad
Strings of possession can be formed that way :
ˈdisækʰæhɑxø øgøˈlɑdɑxø øgøˈxæxæd
ˈdisækʰæ-ɑxø øg-lɑs-ɑxø øg-ˈkæxæd
king-POSS.3SG GEN-land-POSS.3SG GEN-Kaxad
The king of the land of Kaxad.
Location, destination, origin
For basic expressions, locative, dative and ablative cases are used.
gɛˈfødøxø
gɛ-tøs-øxø
LOC-house-POSS.1SG
In my house.
More precise expressions require the use of a noun refering to a place, combined with the possessive construction.
gɛˈdæfɑxø øgøfɛˈkʰo ˈøgɛ
gɛ-dæt-ɑxø øg-tɛˈkʰo ˈøgɛ
LOC-top-POSS.3SG GEN-table the
In the top of the table
On the table
Verbal phrase
Basic order : [verb/auxiliary] [verbal noun] [adverb]
Unlike the nominal phrase, the verbal phrase generally can't stands on its own to form a whole sentence. The main exception is the imperative (which is formed like an optative, using 3rd person endings).
oxˈdɑtʰœny
uk-ˈdɑtʰɔ-nyɴ
OPT-listen-3SG.IPFV
Listen !
Sentence
ɑˈgɑf is a V2 language :
The basic phrase order is [verb][subject][object], but in a declarative main clause, the verb phrase must be moved to second position.
Whether the subject or the object phrase is moved to first position is up to the speaker, it's a form of topicalisation.
ɑˈgɑf is not a pro-drop language, subject pronouns must be used if there is no noun as the subject of the sentence.
If the subject is not a pronoun, a dummy third person pronoun corresponding to that subject can be put before the verb, rather than moving the subject or object :
ˈdisækʰæ ˈøgɛ øˈdægænø
ˈdisækʰæ ˈøgɛ øɰ-ˈægæ-nøɴ
king the PRV-speak-3SG.PRF
The king has spoken.
ˈɑxø øˈdægænø ˈdisækʰæ ˈøgɛ
ˈɑxø øɰ-ˈægæ-nøɴ ˈdisækʰæ ˈøgɛ
3SG.ABS PRV-speak-3SG.PRF king the
He has spoken the king
The king has spoken.
When the negating auxiliary is used, the participle can also be moved before the verb instead of the subject or object.
ŋɔ øɰˈmɑtʰæŋɔ ˈfætʰɛŋɛ ˈɑxø
ŋɔ øɰ-ˈmɑtʰæ-ŋɔɴ ˈfætʰæ-ŋɛɴ ˈɑxø
2SG.ERG PRV-NEG.OPT-2SG.PRF kill-VB 3SG.ABS
You didn't have to kill him/her.
ˈfætʰɛŋɛ øɰˈmɑtʰæŋɔ ŋɔ ˈɑxø
ˈfætʰæ-ŋɛɴ øɰ-ˈmɑtʰæ-ŋɔɴ ŋɔ ˈɑxø
kill-VB PRV-NEG.OPT-2SG.PRF 2SG.ERG 3SG.ABS
To kill didn't have you him/her
You didn't have to kill him/her.
Predicate
As already mentionned, any noun or adjective can be turned into a verb, giving them the basic meanings "to be X(ed)" (in the active voice), "to cause one to become X(ed)" (in the causative voice) and "(to cause oneself) to become X(ed)" (in the reflexive voice). A noun becoming a verb that way can keep eventual case affixes (particulary locative, ablative, and dative ones), they are treated as part of the stem. Any modifier of a verbalized noun remains after it.
ˈɑxɔk ˈæɪxɔdø
ˈɑxɔk ˈæɪxɔɴ-dø
3PL.ABS hostile-3PL.PRF
They became hostile.
Relative and subordinated clauses
They are handled quite similary to english, whith interrogative pronouns used as relative pronouns. The subclause precede the main clause. In the subclause, the verbal phrase does not move to second position. The relative pronouns is generaly in last position in the subclause. The relativised element moved in first position in the main clause. Thus the word order here is almost the reverse of English.
Notice that the relatived element can be an adverb, in which case it became a distinct element from the verbal phrase in the main clause, filling the role of first element of the clause.
øɰˈpʰætʰæhø ˈbæxøxø gøˈgæh ɛˈgæʊ øɰˈpʰætʰɛhø ŋø
øɰ-ˈfætʰæ-øɴ bæx-øxø gø-gæs ɛˈgæʊ øɰ-ˈfætʰɛ-øɴ ŋø
PRV-kill-3SG.PRF father-POSS.1SG ERG-who man PRV-kill-1SG.PRF 1SG.ERG
I killed the man who killed my father.